Over the last 30 years, numerous empirical studies have suggested it is possible to arrange defensive mechanisms into a hierarchy of relative psychopathology beginning in severity with “psychotic defenses”, and ranging through “immature defenses”, “intermediate defenses”, and finally, “mature defenses”. An individual with a personality disorder is defined as having “immature defenses” (i.e. acting out, splitting, projection) which, in terms of their effect on others, can be compared to a cigarette smoker in an elevator. Such behaviour seems innocent to the user and deliberately irritating and provocative to the observer. A defining quality of such defenses is they allow the person to externalize responsibility for their behaviour thereby providing justification for refusing help or accepting blame. Accordingly, such individuals tend to define other people or external events as the source of their problems. In some instances this perception can lead to self-righteous “acting out” of anger and frustration towards perceived offenders, and hence, one reason for their reputation of being difficult to get along with.
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